Introduction

The Passover Seder is a ritual observed at the beginning of the Jewish holiday of Passover. It is conducted throughout the world on the night of the 15^th of Nisan in the Hebrew calendar and also on the following night in the Diaspora. 

15 Steps

In the middle ages of France, the Seder was organized into 15 steps either by Rashi or one of his disciples. These steps were first recorded in the Machzor Vitry, an 11th-century prayer book that incorporates legal rulings, composed by Rabbi Simcha of Vitry, a French scholar and disciple of Rashi. Some have the custom to recite the name of each step before performing the ritual. 

It is interesting to note that these steps are neither mentioned by the Talmud nor Maimonides. However these steps are included in most printed texts of the Haggadah. Due to the length of this topic the author has divided this subject into 3 articles, each covering 5 of these steps. This article discusses the second 5 steps starting from ritual washing of the hands and ending with the eating of the matzo-maror sandwich.   

The following table lists these 5 steps with their names in Hebrew and English with a citation from the Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim Chapter 475).

Number	Hebrew	English	Paragraph
6	רחצה	Ritual Washing of Hands	1
7	מוציא	Blessing on Eating Matzo	1
8	מצה	Eating Matzo	1
9	מרור	Eating Bitter Herb (Maror)	6
10	כורך	Eating Matzo-maror Sandwich	7

For each of these steps the author will address the following questions:

• Ceremony – what is actually done?
• Reason – why it is done?
• Origin – what is the origin of the practice?
• Halacha – what are the different views?

Glossary

For ease of reading the author has provided a glossary of terms related to Passover which are frequently cited in this article. The following table lists these words in English (in alphabetical order), Hebrew, and their meaning.

English	Hebrew	Meaning
Haggadah	הגדה	Text for the Seder
Maror	מרור	Bitter herbs
Matzo (or Matzah)	מצה	Unleavened Bread
Seder	סדר	Ritual of these 15 steps

Menu

The following table lists the essential food items for the Seder including their name in English, Hebrew, function, and step in the Seder.

English	Hebrew	Function	Step (s)
Wine	יין	Sanctification	1,5,13 and 15
Karpas (Vegetable)	כרפס	Arouse curiosity of children	3
Matzo Unleavened bread)	מצה	Remember Exodus	7,8, 10, and 12
Maror (Bitter herb)	מרור	Remember Slavery	9 and 10
Charoset (Fruit mixture)	חרסת	Remember Slavery	9 and 10

Step 6 – Ritual Washing of Hands (Second Time) – רחצה

Ceremony

At this stage the participants of the Seder ritually wash their hands before consumption of matzo and recite a blessing over this washing. By contrast at step 2 (Ritual Washing of Hands – first time) one does not recite a blessing.  

Reason

The Mishna Berurah (158:1) provides the following reasons for this practice:

• Ritual purity – related to the priestly dues.
• Holiness – cleanliness leading to holiness.

Ritual Purity

The sages decreed that that unwashed hands are a second level of impurity which can render a priestly due (terumah) unfit for consumption by contact but not unconsecrated food. The sages extended this decree to unconsecrated food meaning that one should ritually wash his hands before consuming bread. Even though the temple is no longer standing and therefore the laws of purity are not relevant, the sages maintained this decree to keep the memory of the temple alive with the hope of a quick rebuilding of the temple. 

Holiness

The sage aimed for holiness in all aspects of life based upon the verse in Leviticus 19:2, “You shall be holy, for I, Hashem, your G-d, am holy.” In particular the sages decreed that one should ritually wash his hands before consuming bread as a sign of cleanliness and holiness. The Talmud (Berachot 53b) bases this idea on Leviticus 11:44, “You shall sanctify yourselves and become holy, because I (Hashem) am holy. Therefore you shall not defile yourselves through eating any creeping creature.” The Talmud chose this latter verse for this derivation because the former verse did not mention eating.      

Origin

The Talmud (Chagigah 18b) quotes the Mishna which requires ritual washing of the hands before eating bread as a decree from the sages. 

Halacha            

This section will analyze the Halacha of this ritual in terms of:

• Applicability at present.
• Requirement to ritually wash the hands.
• Amount of water.
• Blessing.

Applicability at Present

Although the decisors of Halacha debate the requirement to ritually wash hands before eating solid foods dipped in one of these 7 liquids, all agree to the requirement to ritually wash the hand before eating bread. The reader may ask, “Since both of these requirements are of rabbinic origin and related to ritual purity why is there a dispute in regard to the former practice and agreement in the latter?” The Mishna Berurah (158:1) explains that the sages wished to keep the practice of eating in purity and holiness as explained above.  

Requirement

The decisors of Halacha debate the requirement for a second ritual washing of the hands at the   Seder. Since the hands were washed at Step 2 – Ritual Washing of the Hands (First Time) the hands are ritually clean before Step 7 – Eating Matzo. The Mishna Berurah (475:1) explains that with the long time lapse between these 2 steps a person may have touched parts of the body which require ritual washing of the hands. However the Biur Halacha (ibid.) notes that if a person is sure that he did not touch these parts of the body he need not perform this second ritual washing of the hands.   

The Magen Avraham, 17^th century commentator on the Shulchan Aruch, writes (ibid. 475:1) that if a person is sure that he did not touch parts of the body that require ritual washing then he:

• Must recite the blessing on the first washing before dipping (Step 2).
• Must intend that this first washing cover the washing over matzo based upon Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 158:7).  

However the Magen Avraham favours the position of a second ritual washing with a blessing.

Amount of Water

The Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 160:13) rules that ¼ of a log of water (81 cc – Yalkut Yosef 472:21, 86 cc – Dirshu 486:6, or in terms of US fl oz. 2.74 or 2.91 respectively) is sufficient for ritual washing of both hands because the sages determined that with this amount one can wash his hands well (Dirshu 160:52). In addition this amount is the minimum to purify impure vessels (Shulchan Aruch Harav 160:16).

The Mishna Berurah (160:66) explains that one should pour the water 2 times on each hand. The first pouring purifies the hands and the second pouring purifies the water on the hands. However if one pours the full amount of ¼ of a log at one time then one pouring is sufficient for both hands (ibid.). If water is easily available one should not rely on the minimum amount (ibid.).        

Blessing

Since there are conflicting opinions about the need for a second washing, the blessing over this washing is problematic because of the general rule, “We do not recite a blessing in a matter of dispute (Mishna Berurah 158:20).” The Biur Halacha (475:1) suggests that a person purposely touch some part of the body which requires ritual washing and a blessing to avoid this dispute. However the Yalkut Yosef (475:1) vigorously objects to this practice and stresses that since the Talmud (Pesachim 115b) requires two washings, because a person may have touched those parts of the body that require washing, there is no issue in reciting the blessing.  The Yalkut Yosef (ibid.) concludes that if a person is certain that he did not touch those parts that require washing the he should ritually wash the hands without reciting a blessing.    

Step 7 – Blessing on Eating Matzo – מוציא

Ceremony

At this stage the leader of the Seder takes all three of the matzoth (i.e. two whole and one broken that lies between them) and recites the blessing over bread, “Blessed are You, Hashem, our G-d, King of the universe who brings forth bread from the earth” (Shulchan Aruch Orach Chaim 475:1). Although matzo is unleavened the Torah calls it bread (Deuteronomy 16:3) and therefore this blessing is valid for matzo.   

Reason

The Mishna Berurah (475:2) explains that the blessing is made over all 3 matzoth because:

• On all festivals one makes the blessing over two whole loaves to commemorate the double portion of manna that fell before the Sabbath and festivals. (On Passover two whole matzoth corresponds to two loaves.)  
• The blessing includes the broken middle matzo to allude to the poor man’s bread of Deuteronomy 16:3.  

The Aruch Hashulchan (ibid. 475:3), based upon the Tur Shulchan Aruch, explains that there is a dispute about the blessings with respect to the matzoth. One view holds that the blessing on eating the matzo (i.e. step 7) applies to the top and bottom matzoth and the following blessing on the mitzvah of eating the matzo (i.e. step 8) applies to the broken matzo to emphasize the aspect of “poor msn’s bread”. However an opposing view reverses the role of the matzoth, meaning that the first blessing (step 7) applies to the broken matzo to emphasize the aspect of “poor man’s bread” and the second blessing (step 8) applies to the whole matzoth. Therefore both the top and broken matzoth are held for both blessings. The Aruch Hashulchan (ibid.) adds that it is not proper to recite two blessings on the same piece of matzo because we do not bundle many mitzvoth on one item to show respect for the mitzvoth.         

The Talmud (Berachot 35a) states that one must recite a blessing over eating food to thank Hashem for His bounty. In addition the Talmud finds an allusion to the requirement of a blessing based upon the following verses in Psalms: 

24:1 – “The land and its fullness belong to Hashem.”

115:16 – “The heavens belong to Hashem, but the earth He has given to mankind.”

The Talmud (ibid.) resolves the apparent contradiction between the verses and explains that before the blessing everything belongs to Hashem (i.e. former verse). After the blessing man may partake of Hashem’s bounty (i.e. latter verse).      

Origin

The Talmud (Berachot 39b) cites this practice of placing the broken piece of matzo with the whole one and reciting the blessing over bread.   

Halacha            

The decisors of Halacha debate the disposition of the 2 top matzoth as will be explained in the next step. 

Step 8 – Eating Matzo – מצה

Ceremony

This ceremony encompasses the following:

• Blessing over the mitzvah of eating matzo.
• Eating the matzo.

Blessing

At this stage the leader of the Seder releases the third matzo (i.e. now holding the whole and broken matzoth) and recites the blessing over the mitzvah of eating matzo, “Blessed are You, Hashem, our G-d, King of the universe who has sanctified us (Israelites) by His commandments and has commanded us to eat matzo” (Shulchan Aruch Orach Chaim 475:1). Hence before eating matzo, the leader of the Seder recites two blessings over the consumption of matzo one for the food (i.e. step 7) and the other for the mitzvah (i.e. step 8). 

Maimonides (Laws of Blessings 11:7-8), based upon the Talmud Pesachim 7b, specifies that the blessing should be recited before performing the mitzvah, in this case consuming the matzo.      

Eat the matzo

The matzo is consumed at this point (Shulchan Aruch ibid. 475:1) while reclining on the left side (ibid. 472:3). 

Reason

Blessing

Maimonides (Laws of Blessings 1:3) writes, “Just as we recite blessings for benefit which we derive from the world, we also recite blessings for each mitzvah before we fulfill it.” In this manner the blessing leads a person to focus on performance of the mitzvah and aim for holiness. The blessing mentions sanctification to fulfill the biblical directive (Leviticus 19:2), “You shall be holy, for I, Hashem, your G-d, am holy“.

Eat the Matzo

The Torah itself (Deuteronomy 16:3) provides the reason for eating matzo at the seder, based upon, “For seven days you shall eat matzoth, the bread of affliction, for in haste you went out of the land of Egypt, so that you shall remember the day of your exodus from the land of Egypt all the days of your life.” Maimonides (Guide to the Perplexed 3:46) explains that by recalling the exodus from Egypt one reflects on the many miracles that Hashem performed at that time.  

In addition the Haggadah provides the following reasons:

• Haste in leaving Egypt – “The Haggadah asks, “What does the matzo that we eat at the Seder recall?” The Haggadah answers, “It recalls the dough of our ancestors, which did not have time to rise before the King, King of kings, the Holy One, blessed be He, revealed Himself to the Israelites and redeemed them as said in the Torah (Exodus 12:39).” The verse follows, “They baked the dough that they took out of Egypt into unleavened cakes because it had not risen because they were driven from Egypt and could not delay. (In addition) they made no provisions for themselves.” The Haggadah chose the verse in Exodus rather than the above verse in Deuteronomy because the former verse mentions the day of departure from Egypt. By contrast the latter verse refers to eating matzoth for 7 days and not specifically the Seder.  
• Recall slavery in Egypt – The Haggadah begins the retelling of the exodus by stating in reference to the matzo, “This is the bread of affliction that our forefathers eat in the land of Egypt.” The Torah calls matzo the bread of affliction in Deuteronomy 16:3, “For seven days you shall eat matzoth, the bread of affliction.”The commentators on the Haggadah explain that the Egyptians fed their Israelite slaves matzo because it is an inexpensive food that is easily stored and takes long to digest. Maimonides (Guide to the Perplexed 3:43) explains that through matzo the Torah emphasizes that a person should reflect on his humble origins (i.e. slaves in Egypt) and be grateful for his current blessings.       
• Sacrificial meal – Maharsha on Pesachim 116b notes that the Israelites ate matzo on the night of the 15^th of Nissan in Egypt even though the exodus occurred the following morning. Therefore some explain that the biblical command to eat matzo at the first Seder in Egypt commemorates the exodus of the following morning. By contrast the consumption of Paschal offering at night commemorates the killing of the Egyptian firstborn. However the Maharsha prefers to explain the eating of matzo at the first Seder as a part of a meal eaten in holiness with the matzo resembling the meal offering of the temple which was primarily made from made from matzo. Although some the breads of the thanksgiving offering were leavened the majority were matzoth. The Maharsha further explains that leaven symbolizes the evil inclination (Berachot 17a) and was avoided by the Israelites when they departed from the idolatry of Egypt.  Hence the matzo at the Seder commemorates the matzo eaten in Egypt.

Origin

Blessing

Maimonides (Laws of Blessings 1:5), based upon the Talmud Berachot 33a, states, “The text of all the blessings was ordained by Ezra and his court (at the time of the second temple). It is not fit to alter, add or detract from it.”

Eat the Matzo

By contrast the mitzvah to eat matzo at the first Seder night is biblical as the verse (Exodus 12:18) states, “On the 14^th of the first month (Nissan) in the evening (i.e. 15^th day), you shall eat matzoth.”

Halacha

The codifiers of Halacha discuss and debate the following points about matzo for the Seder:

• Type of matzo – Although matzo may be made from wheat, barley, spelt, oats, and rye; wheat is preferred.
• Watched (shmura) matzo – watched from the time of harvesting the grain (preferred) or at least from the kneading of the dough.
• Handmade or machine made – handmade preferred but machine matzo is acceptable if prepared for the purpose of the Seder.   
• Kneading liquid – water only.
• Time to knead – 18 minutes.
• Shape of matzo – round or square.
• Quantity of matzo.
• Method of consumption.
• Time to consume.

Appendix 1 provides background material for the type of matzo, preference for watched matzo (matzo shmura) and handmade), kneading liquid, time allowed for kneading the dough, and shape of matzo.  

Quantity of Matzo

The Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 475:1) rules that after reciting the blessing on matzo the leader of the Seder breaks off a piece of one olive volume from each of the 2 top matzoth (i.e. the whole and broken one) and eats them together while reclining on the left side. There are a range of opinions about the amount of matzo to be eaten at this stage due to the:

• Different calculations for volume and weight of matzo. Appendix 2 analyzes in detail these calculations considering volume of olives, eggs, and density of matzo.     
• Different nature of laws – Torah or rabbinic as follows.    

Different Nature of Laws

The Shulchan Aruch (ibid. 486:1) defines an olive volume as ½ of a medium sized chicken egg with its shell. The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 1) notes that Maimonides defines an olive volume as ⅓ of an egg. The Mishna Berurah (ibid.) explains that in matters of Torah law (e.g. consuming the first olive volume at the Seder) one should follow the stricter opinion (i.e. ½ of an egg). By contrast in matters of rabbinic law (i.e. second matzo eaten at step 8 – Dirshu 476:8, third matzo at step 10 – Korech, and both matzoth at step 12 – Afikoman) one may follow the lenient opinion. In addition the Dirshu (486:7) notes that one may use the lenient measure of an olive for the second Seder because this Seder, which is only observed in the Diaspora, is of rabbinic origin. The Yalkut Yosef (475:9) allows the lenient opinion for the sick and elderly.

The following table summarizes the amount of matzo to be eaten in egg volumes for each of the above stages, showing the step number, its name, whether the law is Torah based or rabbinic, and amount of matzo.

Number	Name	Torah	Rabbinic	Amount
8	Eating Matzo	√ (1)	√ (1)	1/2 +1/3 = 5/6
10	Matzo-maror sandwich	X	√ (1)	1/3
12	Eating Afikoman	X	√ (2)	1/3 +1/3 = 2/3

First Seder

The table shows a range of matzo, in fractions, to be eaten at this stage, namely 5/6 of an egg volume for a healthy person (i.e. 2 olive bulks) and 1/3 of an egg volume (i.e. one egg volume – lenient measure) for a sick person (Yalkut Yosef 475:5). The weights of an individual machine or handmade matzo at 30 and 60g respectively are typical figures and depend upon thickness of the matzo.     

Machine Matzo – 30g

Volume (of egg)	Range
1/3 – Sick or Elderly Person	1/3 – 2/3
5/6  – Healthy Person (Note 1)	5/6 – 5/3

Note 1:  Rabbi Dovid Feinstein (ibid.) sets the limit at 1 machine matzo for a healthy person. 

Handmade Matzo – 60g

Volume (of egg)	Range
1/3 – Sick or Elderly Person	1/6 – 1/3
5/6  – Healthy Person	5/12 – 5/6

Second Seder

For the second Seder which is observed in the Diaspora one may use the lenient measure of an olive resulting in the following ranges:

Machine matzo – 30g

Volume (of egg)	Range
1/3 – Sick or Elderly Person	1/3 – 2/3
2/3  – Healthy Person	2/3 – 4/3

Handmade Matzo – 60g

Volume (of egg)	Range
1/3 – Sick or Elderly Person	1/6 – 1/3
2/3  – Healthy Person	1/3 – 2/3

Method of Consumption

As mentioned earlier, the Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 475:1) rules that after reciting the blessing on the matzoth the leader of the Seder breaks off a piece of olive volume from each of the 2 top matzoth (i.e. the whole and broken one) and eats them together while reclining on the left side. The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 9) explains that one must eat an olive volume from the previously broken piece of matzo because the mitzvah to eat matzo at the Seder is from the “poor man’s bread”. However it could be argued that one could eat less than an olive volume from the first matzo because the first blessing on the matzo does not require consumption of an olive volume. 

The Mishna Berurah (ibid.) explains that some decisors of Halacha opine that the second blessing on the matzo applies to the first matzo therefore one should eat an olive volume from both matzoth. However since the requirement to eat 2 olive volumes is not biblical one can use the smaller volume of an olive (i.e. ⅓ of an egg) for eating the second matzo (Dirshu 486:8). According to the Mishna Berurah one could use the smaller measure for the first matzo.     

Distribution of Matzoth

The decisors of Halacha debate the need for each person at the Seder to have 3 matzoth for the blessings and consumption of the matzoth or can one combine extra pieces of matzoth with those of the leader of the Seder (Dirshu 475:9). On one hand it is preferable to that each person at the Seder eat from the 3 matzoth of the leader of the Seder because the blessings were recited over these matzoth. However as discussed above our matzoth comprise only 1-2 olive volumes. Hence with many participants at the Seder the matzoth of the leader of the Seder would not be sufficient for everyone present. In fact the Rema (Orach Chaim 167:1) writes that even for a weekday meal, where one person recites the blessing over bread for a group it is proper that this person distribute an olive sized piece of bread to each of the participants from the bread of the blessing. Hence according to this view each participant at the Seder should have 3 matzoth to fulfill the different mitzvoth related to matzo.  

Some authorities of Halacha allow one to combine a small piece of matzo from the leader of the Seder with other pieces of matzo. They explain the above ruling of the Rema that one should consume bread from the one making the blessing to minimize delay between the blessing and consumption of the bread. At a regular meal the participants eat from the loaf of the host and therefore there is concern about delay. However at the Seder to minimize delay the host will provide matzo for each of the participants to fulfill the mitzvah of eating matzo. The Dirshu (475:9) explains that these extra matzoth be broken to fulfill the requirement of “poor man’s bread”.

Dipping in Salt

The Shulchan Aruch (ibid. 475:1) suggests dipping matzo in salt. However the Rema (ibid.) mentions that the Ashkenazi custom is not dip matzo in salt at the Seder because bread or matzo baked from well milled flour does not require salt. The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 4) adds that since matzo is called a “poor man’s bread” it should be eaten at the Seder without salt. The Shulchan Aruch Harav (ibid. 10) further explains to enhance the mitzvah of matzo it should be eaten without salt. However for the rest of Passover one dips the matzo in salt (ibid.).

Eating both Matzoth Simultaneously  

The Shulchan Aruch (ibid.) further suggests eating both olive volumes at the same time. However if that is not possible, since it may be lead to choking, then one should eat an olive volume from the top matzo and then an olive volume from the middle matzo. The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 9) clarifies the above ruling and states that one should place the two olive volumes in his mouth chew them but is not required to swallow both of them simultaneously. In fact one may swallow the matzo slowly as long as the two olive volumes are consumed within the time limit as explained in the next section,”Time to Consume”. Similarly the Yalkut Yosef (475:11) allows one to consume the matzo slowly within the specified time because it may be dangerous to eat both olive volumes simultaneously.      

The Aruch Hashulchan (ibid. 475:4) explains that the above ruling of the Shulchan Aruch (ibid.) to swallow both olive volumes simultaneously is beyond the letter of the law. Other authorities (e.g. Maharil of the 14^th-15^th centuries) permit gradual consumption of the matzo as long as they are eaten with the time limit of 2-9 minutes as discussed below. In fact the Shulchan Aruch (ibid. 475:6) rules that even if one starts to eat the matzo, then stops, and later resumes eating matzo within the above time limit he has fulfilled the mitzvah. The Aruch Hashulchan (ibid.) reconciles the two rulings of the Shulchan Aruch and explains that the former ruling is beyond the letter of the law and the latter ruling is the basic law after the fact. The Aruch Hashulchan takes a middle position and recommends gradual consumption of matzo without interruptions.    

By contrast Maimonides (Laws of Matzo 8:8) writes, “After reciting the two blessings on the matzo dips the matzo in charoset and eats it.” In contrast to the Shulchan Aruch, Maimonides only mentions eating one olive volume of matzo and dipping it in charoset.

Time to Consume 

The Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 475:6) states that one should consume the olive volume of matzo within the time to eat half a small loaf of bread which amounts to the volume of 3 or 4 eggs (172-229 cc using 57.3 cc as the volume of an egg). The Mishna Berurah (612:8) comments that in matters of Torah law (e.g. first olive volume of matzo) one should use the stricter measure of time based upon 3 eggs. By contrast in matters of rabbinic law (e.g. second olive volume of matzo) one may use the lenient measure of time based upon 4 eggs. The contemporary decisors of Halacha define this time as between 2-4 minutes for a healthy person and up to 6-9 minutes for a sick or elderly person (Dirshu 475:41). The Yalkut Yosef (475:12) specifies this time as 6-7.5 minutes but recommends consuming the matzo within 4 minutes. 

Other than the half loaf limit, the Talmud does not provide a precise measure of time therefore there is a wide range of opinions on this matter. In addition the early decisors of Halacha (e.g. Maimonides and the Shulchan Aruch) do not define this time in specific time units (e.g. fraction of an hour). 

Step 9 – Eating the Bitter Herb (Maror) – מרור

Ceremony

This ceremony encompasses the following:

• Blessing over the mitzvah of eating the bitter herb.
• Eating the bitter herb.

Blessing

At this stage the leader of the Seder takes a piece of the bitter herb recites the blessing over the mitzvah of eating maror, “Blessed are You, Hashem, our G-d, King of the universe who has sanctified us (Israelites) by His commandments and has commanded us to eat maror” (Shulchan Aruch Orach Chaim 475:1). 

Maimonides (Laws of Blessings 11:7-8), based upon the Talmud Pesachim 7b, specifies that the blessing should be recited before performing the mitzvah, in this case consuming the maror.    

The Mishna Berurah (473:55) notes that one does not recite the blessing, “Blessed are You, Hashem our G-d, Who (divine) creates the produce of the earth” before consuming the maror The Mishna Berurah (ibid.) explains that when reciting this blessing over the karpas one intends to cover the blessing on consuming the maror.  The Dirshu (475:23) adds that a blessing on consumption of the maror is not required because it is considered as part of the Seder meal and is covered by the blessing on the matzo.    

Eat the Bitter Herb

The Shulchan Aruch (ibid.), based upon Pesachim 115b, rules that one dips the bitter herb into charoset before consuming it to minimize the sharpness of the bitter herb which may be harmful (Mishna Berurah ibid. 13). The Shulchan Aruch (ibid.) states that one should neither submerge the maror in charoset nor keep it there too long to avoid neutralizing the bitter taste of maror. Therefore after dipping one should shake off the charoset from the maror (ibid.). The Shulchan Aruch (ibid. 475:3), based upon the Talmud Pesachim 115b, rules that if one swallows the maror without chewing then he has not fulfilled the mitzvah of eating maror because one must taste its bitterness.

The Dirshu (ibid. 21) notes that the requirement to dip maror in charoset only applies at the Seder and explains that the sages were concerned that no one should suffer any harm as the result of this mitzvah. For the rest of the year a person should take precautions that he feels are necessary.    

Tosafot (ibid.) quotes a view that this dipping is to kill a potentially harmful insect that lives in maror. The Torah forbids the consumption of insects, whether alive or dead (Leviticus 11:41-42), except for certain species of grasshoppers (ibid. 22). (At present only a few communities in Israel have a tradition for the identity of kosher grasshoppers.) Tosafot (ibid.) explains that most of the maror did not have these insects and an inspection for insects was sufficient. In the event that an insect was missed the charoset would kill the insect preventing a danger to the participants at the Seder.    

Sequence

The Dirshu (473:66) records a dispute about the sequence of dipping and blessing. On one hand the Shulchan Aruch (ibid. 475:1) states that one should dip the bitter herb into charoset and then recite the blessing to minimize the delay between the blessing and consumption of the herb. On the other hand the Magen Avraham (473:19) writes that one should recite the blessing and then dip the herb to show that dipping is an essential component of the maror ritual and therefore is not an interruption between the blessing and consumption of the vegetable.   

Reclining

Since consumption of the bitter herbs commemorates slavery in Egypt the Shulchan Aruch (ibid. 475:1) rules that one need not recline when eating the bitter herbs. However the Mishna Berurah (ibid. 14) permits one to recline, presumably because by reclining we recall the freedom after slavery.       

Reason

Blessing

Maimonides (Laws of Blessings 1:3) writes, “Just as we recite blessings for benefit which we derive from the world, we also recite blessings for each mitzvah before we fulfill it.” In this manner the blessing leads a person to focus on performance of the mitzvah and aim for holiness as the blessing mentions sanctification to fulfill the biblical directive (Leviticus 19:2), “You shall be holy, for I, Hashem, your G-d, am holy“.

 Eat the Maror   

Unlike the mitzvah of eating matzo the Torah does not provide a reason for eating maror at the Seder. However the Haggadah explains that maror recalls the bitterness that the Egyptians imposed on the lives of our ancestors in Egypt as said in the Torah (Exodus 1:14). The verse follows, “They (the Egyptians) embittered (וימררו) their (Israelites) lives with hard labor, mortar and bricks, and every labour of the field. All the work involved crushing harshness.” The Hebrew word embittered (וימררו) contains the letters of the Hebrew word for bitter herbs (מרור) based upon the root word מרר to embitter.

It is interesting to note that the gematria of מרור is the same as the האמת the truth at 446 which provides a reference to the secular expression “bitter truth” which means a harsh or unpleasant fact that is difficult to accept. Hence the consumption of maror at the Seder reminds us of the bitter slavery in Egypt followed by the exodus and by extension of the future redemption after this current long and bitter exile. The prophet Zachariah (8:3) speaks of the future redemption in terms of the truth, “Hashem said: I will return to Zion and dwell in the midst of Jerusalem which shall be called the city of truth (האמת).”         

Origin

Blessing

Maimonides (Laws of Blessings 1:5), based upon the Talmud Berachot 33a, states, “The text of all of the blessings was ordained by Ezra and his court (at the time of the second temple). It is not fit to alter, add, or detract from it.”

Eat the Maror

At present the mitzvah to eat maror at the Seder night is a rabbinic ordinance (Talmud Pesachim 120a) because the biblical mitzvah to eat maror only applies when the temple is standing and the Paschal offering is eaten. The Talmud derives this requirement from the wording of the verse (Exodus 12:8) which commands the eating of maror, “They (Israelites) shall eat the meat on this night (Seder night) roasted over fire, and matzoth; with bitter herbs they shall eat it.” The word “with” implies when there is an obligation to eat the Paschal lamb; there is likewise a mitzvah to eat bitter herbs. When there is no obligation to eat the Paschal lamb, there is also no biblical obligation to eat bitter herbs.

The same ruling may also be derived from the verse (Numbers 9:11) discussing the second paschal offering when a person is unable to offer the Paschal lamb on the 15^th of Nissan (e.g. ritually impure from contact with the dead). A quote from the verse follows, “They (Israelites) shall eat it (the second paschal offering) with matzoth and bitter herbs. “

Halacha

The codifiers of Halacha discuss and debate the following points about maror:

• Type of maror.
• Quantity of maror.
• Method of consumption.
• Time to consume.

Type of Maror

The Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 473:5), based upon the Talmud Pesachim 39a, lists the different types of vegetables for maror in decreasing order of preference. The following table provides their names in Hebrew and English with related notes.

Hebrew	English	Notes
חזרת	Lettuce	Romaine preferred
עולשין	Endives	Chicory or Escarole
תמכא	Horseradish	Dispute
חרחבינא	Palm Ivy	Not used
מרור	Burdock	Dispute

Although the Mishna lists the species of maror there is considerable debate in Halacha about the actual identity of these species. In addition the Talmud only provides the names of these species with little description. Hence over the passage of time uncertainty arose over the exact identity of these vegetables. However references in the Talmud to these vegetables, where available, aids in the determination of these species.  

Characteristics

In addition to listing the types of maror the Talmud (ibid.) specifies the following conditions for eligibility for maror:

1. Edible.
2. Vegetable.
3. Pale green leaves.
4. White sap within.
5. Bitter taste.

The Talmud (ibid.) derives these conditions as follows:

Edible

Since the Torah (Exodus 12:8) states that one must eat maror, the selected food must be fit for human consumption. In addition the food must be pleasant based upon the principle (Proverbs 3:17), “Its (Torah’s) ways are ways of pleasantness.”   

Vegetable

The Talmud (ibid.) questions, “How do we know that maror must be a vegetable? Perhaps for maror one could use bile of a fish which is also bitter?” The Talmud answers that we compare matzo to maror. Just as the grain for matzo grows from the ground so too the maror must grow from the ground because the verse (Exodus 12:8) mentions matzo and maror together.   

Pale Green Leaves and White Sap

Since the Talmud (ibid.) does not cite a verse for these requirements they are known from the oral law.  

Bitter Taste

Maror must have a bitter taste to commemorate the bitter slavery in Egypt as the verse (Exodus 1:14) states, “They (the Egyptians) embittered (וימררו) their (Israelites) lives with hard labor, mortar and bricks, and every labour of the field.”

Stalks

The Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 473:5), based upon the Talmud (Pesachim 39a), rules that one may use both the leaves and stalks but not the roots. The leaves must be fresh but the stalks may be fresh or dry. The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 37) explains that the leaves must be fresh to taste the maror and that some allow withered leaves. By contrast the stalks may be dry because the stalks maintain their taste due to their thickness. In addition the Shulchan Aruch rules that the maror must be in its natural state and therefore is not valid for the Seder if it is cooked, stewed, or pickled. The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 38) records different views about the disqualification of pickling (viz. placing the maror in water for 24 or more hours or in vinegar for sufficient time to boil the maror in water). The Dirshu (ibid. 50) notes that one may momentarily place the maror in vinegar to remove any insects. Alternately one may rinse the maror with water.                    

Type of Vegetable

Lettuce     

The Shulchan Aruch (ibid. 473:5) rules that the preferred vegetable for maror is lettuce. There is considerable debate in Halacha about the type of lettuce with the consensus that romaine lettuce is endorsed. Both the Babylonian Talmud (Pesachim 39a) and Jerusalem Talmud (Pesachim 2:5) note that romaine lettuce is not bitter and therefore raise the question, “How can this lettuce be valid for maror?” Both of these sources answer that initially lettuce is sweet but if kept for some time the leaves or stalks become bitter which parallels the experience of the Israelites in Egypt, first pleasant then harsh. Specifically the Babylonian Talmud explains that Egyptians were kind to the Israelites even paid them from their work (Rashi ibid.) and later bitterly enslaved them. Similarly the Jerusalem Talmud explains that the Egyptians initially welcomed the Israelites (Genesis 47:5-6), “Pharaoh said to Joseph: The land of Egypt is before you. In the best of the land settle your father and your brothers. Let them dwell in the land of Goshen.”

For those with an interest in botany, “Israel’s wild lettuce” (Lactuca serriola) neither looks nor tastes like the lettuce sold in American supermarkets. It consists of a central stalk with loose, prickly dark green leaves and continues to grow wild in Israel. The lettuce is bitter, especially as it ages, and when its stalk is cut, oozes a considerable amount of white, bitter sap. Early cultivated lettuce had this same sap”. This explanation is quoted from an article on maror accessible through the following link: https://outorah.org/p/5711.   

The Talmud (ibid.) calls lettuce (חסא) and explains that this word is similar to the Hebrew word (חס) which means to be merciful and alludes to Hashem’s mercy towards the Israelites. The Talmud (Berachot 56a as explained by Rashi) refers to lettuce (חסא) as a vegetable with wide twin leaves which could be a sign for success in business (i.e. doubling profit) if seen in a dream. It could also be a sign of business reversal because the lettuce will eventually become bitter.

Other types of lettuce (e.g. Boston, iceberg, and loose leaf) that meet the above 5 requirements would be suitable for maror.

Endives

Most decisors of Halacha (e.g. Magen Avraham 473:10) accept endives as suitable for maror based upon the Talmud (Pesachim 39a) which calls עולשין as endives or in Aramaic (הינדבי). This classification includes the leaves of curly endive which are also called chicory and escarole. However Belgian endives are not suitable for maror because their leaves are mostly white.    

Horseradish  

The Mishna Berurah (473:34) and Aruch Hashulchan (ibid. 473:12) identify תמכא as horseradish which was the widely accepted vegetable for maror according to the Ashkenazi custom. In Northern Europe fresh green vegetables were not readily available for the Seder because Passover may occur as early as late March or about 4 weeks later which corresponds to early spring in those locations. However the horseradish root does not seem to meet requirements 3 and 4 above, namely pale green leaves with white sap which results in different opinions about the suitability for horseradish as maror.

The leaves of horseradish meet the requirements of maror including pale green leaves and white sap. Those who allow horseradish argue that if the leaves are valid for maror so is the root. Those who argue against contend that the root must be totally connected to the leaves like a stalk of lettuce. The Dirshu (473:47) records both opinions and favours the former.    

Since it is dangerous to eat horseradish whole the Mishna Berurah (473:36) advises to grate the horseradish in advance of the Seder. To preserve its sharpness one can place the grated horseradish in containers with a good seal.       

Palm Ivy

The Talmud (Pesachim 39a) explains that this type of maror is ivy that grows on palm trees. Due to the uncertainty of the identification of this species is not used for maror.

Maror

The 5^th species mentioned in the Mishna (Pesachim 39a) and Shulchan Aruch (473:5) is maror which results in a dispute in Halacha. One view opines that maror is a specific type of vegetable either wormwood or wild lettuce (Magen Avraham 475:15). Others (e.g. Meiri) hold that the name maror is generic and covers any vegetable that meets the 5 conditions listed above.

By contrast the Rema (ibid. 473:5) writes that if one cannot find any of the 5 species mentioned above one should use wormwood as a substitute for maror to commemorate the bitter slavery in Egypt. However one should not recite the blessing for maror using wormwood because it is not valid for maror. In response to the Rema, Biur Halacha (ibid.) quotes contrary views that wormwood is valid for maror. In defense of the Rema the Biur Halacha explains that wormwood is so bitter that it is not considered a food. In addition wormwood may be classified as a fruit and not a vegetable because of its woody stems. This difference in opinion may be resolved by considering the different species of wormwood that very in bitterness and stem structure.

(For those interested in botany, wormwood is a bitter herb known for its use in absinthe. Wormwood’s most notable plant compound is thujone, which has some benefits but can be toxic in excess. Wormwood stems, leaves, and flowers are usually dried for brewing into a tea. The herb can sometimes be found in a supplement form and herbal blends.)

Charoset

As mentioned above one dips the maror into charoset which is a mixture of apple, other fruit, nuts, spices and wine. The following table lists these items, their significance, and source from the Talmud (Pesachim 116a).  

Item	Significance	Talmud
Apple	Miracle of saving children	Talmud (ibid.) and Sotah 11b
Other fruit	Compared to Israelites	Tosafot (ibid.)
Nuts	Compared to Israelites	Tosafot (ibid.)
Spices	Slavery (straw for bricks)	Talmud (ibid.)
Wine	Blood of Israelite slaves	Jerusalem Talmud 10:3

The following paragraphs will elaborate on each of these items quoting from the Talmud and associated commentaries. 

Apple

The Talmud (Pesachim 116a) states that an apple commemorate a deliverance in Egypt. The Rashbam refers to the miracle of the saved children as related in the Talmud (Sotah 11b). Pharaoh had decreed that each male child of the Israelites should be cast into the Nile (Exodus 1:22). Hence the Israelite women had to devise a strategy to save their sons.   

The Talmud (ibid.) relates, “When the time of giving birth would arrive the woman would go and give birth in a field under an apple tree, as it is stated: Under the apple tree I (Hashem) awakened you (Israelites). There your mother was in travail … and brought you forth” (Song of Songs 8:5).”

The reader may ask, “Since the mothers abandoned their sons to resume the tasks of slavery who took care of these children?” The Talmud (ibid.) answers, “Hashem sent an angel who would clean and prepare the newborns, like a midwife. In addition the angel would gather two stones from which flowed oil and honey to nurse the children. Once the Egyptians noticed them they attempt to kill them. However a miracle occurred and they were absorbed by the earth. After the babies grew they returned to their homes.”

Other Fruit

Tosafot (Peaschim 116a) quotes the Geonim (7^th – 11^th century Babylonian scholars of the Talmud) who wrote that one should select fruit mentioned in the Song of Songs which are compared to the Israelites (e.g. figs, pomegranates, and dates). 

Nuts     

Tosafot (ibid.) quotes the Geonim who wrote that one should also select nuts mentioned in the Song of Songs which are compared to the Israelites (e.g. almonds and walnuts). In addition the Hebrew word for an almond is שקד which also means in Hebrew “to hurry”. Hence the almond commemorates the rapid exodus from Egypt after the 10^th plague.  

Spices

The Talmud (ibid.) states that one should select spices that resemble straw (e.g. cinnamon sticks and ginger) to commemorate the slavery in Egypt where the Israelites made bricks using straw (Exodus 5:12) to build storehouses for Pharaoh.       

Wine

In addition to fruit and nuts, the Rema (Orach Chaim 473:5), based upon the Jerusalem Talmud, mentions that one should add a small amount of red wine or wine vinegar to commemorate the blood of the Israelites that was shed by the Egyptians when they threw the male babies of the Israelites into the Nile (Exodus 1:22).

The commentators on the Jerusalem Talmud (Pesachim 10:3) refer to other tragic incidents involving death of children of the Israelites: 

• Bathing in blood – The Midrash (Exodus Rabbah 1:34) relates that Pharaoh developed a skin disease and his doctors recommended that he bathe in the blood of children of the Israelites as a cure.
• Children as bricks – Rashi (Sanhedrin 101b) quotes a Midrash that states that the Egyptians would immure the babies of the Israelites when the quota of bricks was not met by the Israelite slaves.         

In this manner the charoset commemorates both the suffering in Egypt (hence the link to maror) and the special relationship of the Israelites with Hashem (saving of the children and allusions to the Song of Songs).

Texture and Taste

The Rema (ibid.) explains that the charoset should be thick to commemorate the clay that the Israelites used in the making of bricks for Pharaoh (Exodus 1:14).  The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 48) adds that that wine softens the charoset.

The charoset should be tart to commemorate the miracle of survival of the children under the apple tree and sharp through wine or vinegar to commemorate the difficulty of the slavery in Egypt (Aruch Hashulchan ibid. 17).     

Quantity of Maror

The Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 475:1) rules that one must eat an olive volume of maror.  As explained in the section “Quantity of Matzo” there are different opinions about the size of an olive in Halacha ranging from 20 – 30cc. Since the mitzvah to eat maror at the Seder is rabbinic one may follow the lenient opinion of 20cc. When using lettuce or other leafy vegetables the volume may include the stalks.  Two stalks of romaine lettuce satisfy the minimum volume requirement. However to compute the volume of the leaves one must measure them as if they were compacted into a small volume.     

Time to Consume

Similar to the eating of matzo (Shulchan Aruch Orach Chaim 475:6) one should consume the olive volume of maror matzo within the time to eat half a small loaf of bread which amounts to the volume of 3 or 4 eggs (173-230 cc using 57.6 cc as the volume of an egg). In matters of rabbinic law (e.g. eating of maror) one may use the lenient measure of time based upon 4 eggs. Hence the times used for consuming matzo may be increased by 4/3 for the maror. Hence the author has taken the times for eating matzo from the following sources and increased them by 4/3. Hence the time for consuming maror is 2.7-5.3 minutes for a healthy person and up to 8-12 minutes for a sick or elderly person (based on Dirshu 475:41 for matzo). From the Yalkut Yosef (475:12 on matzo) the time to consume maror is 8-10 minutes but preferably within 5.3 minutes. 

Step 10 – Eating Matzo-Maror Sandwich – כורך

Ceremony

At this stage the leader of the Seder takes two pieces from the third matzo and some maror, makes a sandwich and consumes it. In this case a blessing on the matzo and maror are not required because they are covered by the blessings in steps 7 and 9.   

Reason

Although the basic mitzvah of consuming matzo and maror have been fulfilled (i.e. steps 8 and 9) this step was instituted to fulfill the view of Hillel who holds that the matzo and maror must be eaten together based upon the verse Numbers 9:11), “In the second month, on the 14^th day, in the afternoon, they (Israelites) shall bring the paschal offering. They shall eat it with matzo and maror.”    

Origin

The basis for the sandwich is reflected in the biblical verses for consuming maror. The Torah (Exodus 12:8) states in reference to the paschal offering, “They (Israelites) shall eat the meat (of the paschal offering) on this night (Seder night) roasted over fire, and matzoth; with bitter herbs they shall eat it.” In addition the Torah, in reference to the second paschal offering, writes (Numbers 9:11), “They (Israelites) shall eat it (the second paschal offering) with matzoth and bitter herbs. At a literal level both verses indicate that maror should be eaten together with matzo and paschal offering supporting the view of Hillel. By contrast the sages who dispute Hillel hold that the biblical obligation to eat maror is conditional upon the obligation to eat the paschal offering. However, maror may be eaten together with the paschal offering and matzo or separately. 

Halacha

The Halacha for eating matzo and maror at the Seder takes both views into account with the following guidelines:

1. Source of mitzvah – The consumption of matzo at the Seder is a biblical mitzvah. By contrast the consumption of maror is of rabbinic origin at present when the temple in Jerusalem is not functioning.    
2. Clash – Mitzvoth of different origins (e.g. matzo is biblical and maror is rabbinic) clash when performed simultaneously. In the language of the Talmud (Pesachim 115a), one mitzvah (e.g. maror) would nullify the other (i.e. matzo).   
3. Different opinions – As discussed above, according to the sages matzo and maror should be eaten separately.  By contrast Hillel the Elder, who lived in Israel in the 1^st century of the Common Era, held that the matzo and maror should be eaten together with the paschal offering.                   

 Matzo

Since the mitzvah of consuming matzo is biblical (point 1) it must be eaten separately from maror according to both views otherwise the mitzvoth would clash (point 2).

Maror – Sages

According to the sages maror should be eaten separately otherwise the mitzvoth of eating maror would clash with the matzo (point 2), especially since the mitzvah of eating matzo has been fulfilled (step 8).  

 Maror – Hillel

According to Hillel the maror must be eaten together with matzo to commemorate the way that it was eaten at the time of the temple. Although the biblical mitzvah to consume matzo has been fulfilled (step 8), eating matzo with maror does not result in a clash of mitzvoth because Hillel requires the eating of maror with matzo.

Since the Talmud (Pesachim 115a) did not resolve this dispute we follow both opinions:

1. Eat matzo separately (according to both opinions) – Step 8.
2. Eat maror separately (according to the sages) – Step 9.
3. Eat maror with matzo (according to Hillel) – Step 10.     

Hence the Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 475:1) writes that maror is eaten separately after its blessing (step 9) and then one eats the sandwich (step 10). The Shulchan Aruch (ibid.) advises that one should not speak of matters unrelated to the Seder until consuming the sandwich (step 10). In this manner the blessing on the maror covers both steps 9 and 10. The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 24) adds that if one did speak between steps 9 and 10 he need not repeat the blessing.         

Method of Eating

The decisors of Halacha debate the following details of the sandwich:

• Dip into charoset.
• Declaration.
• Need to Recline.  

Charoset

The Shulchan Aruch (ibid.) rules that one should dip the maror of the sandwich into charoset. The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 17) explains that since the sandwich ritual, according to Hillel, fulfills the requirement to eat maror at the Seder it requires dipping into charoset as when maror is eaten  separately (i.e. step 9). By contrast the Rema (ibid. 475:1) states that one does not need to dip maror into charoset because this requirement was fulfilled in step 9 (Mishna Berurah ibid. 18). The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 19) favours the former opinion and concludes that the dipping requirement depends upon local custom.

Declaration

The Shulchan Aruch (ibid.) rules that before eating the sandwich one should declare, “This in commemoration of temple times according to Hillel”. The Biur Halacha questions the timing of this declaration because it could be an interruption between the blessing on the maror and consumption of the sandwich and offers the following solutions:

• Make the declaration after consuming the sandwich.
• Declaration is not required. The Shulchan Aruch (ibid.) means that we eat the sandwich as commemoration of the view of Hillel.    

Despite the comments of the Biur Halacha the prevailing custom is to make the declaration before consuming the sandwich because this declaration is an essential part of the ritual and is not considered as interruption between the blessing and eating.

The Shulchan Aruch (ibid.) states that the text of the declaration is, “A commemoration of the temple according to the view of Hillel.” The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 21) writes that the text is, “A commemoration of the temple according to the view of Hillel. Thus did Hillel when the temple was standing. He would combine the paschal offering, matzo, and maror and eat them together to fulfill the verse (Numbers (9:11): They (Israelites) shall eat it (the second paschal offering) with matzoth and bitter herbs.”    

Recline

The Shulchan Aruch (ibid.) rules that one should recline when eating the sandwich because of the matzo which requires reclining as in step 8. However the Dirshu (ibid. 28) presents views that opine that reclining is not required due to the maror component as in step 9. Hence if one did not recline he need not eat the sandwich again.

Amount of Matzo

As discussed in step 8, since the obligation to eat the matzo-maror sandwich is rabbinic one may use the smaller measure of the olive as 1/3 of an egg volume (Yalkut Yosef 475:76) resulting in the following amounts of matzo to be consumed at this stage:

 Machine matzo – 30g

Volume (of egg)	Range
1/3 (Note 1)	1/3 – 2/3

Note 1:  Rabbi Dovid Feinstein (Haggadah Kol Dodi, 5745 p. 1) sets the limit at 2/3 of a machine matzo for this step.

Handmade Matzo – 60g

Volume (of egg)	Range
1/3	1/6 – 1/3

Conclusion

This article analyzed the second group of 5 of the 15 steps of the Seder, namely from the ritual washing of the hands until consumption of the matzo-maror sandwich. For each step the author discussed the nature of the step, its reason, origin, and disputes in Halacha with the objective to make the Seder more meaningful. In this manner one can fulfill the maxim of the sages, “In every generation an Israelite is obligated to see himself as though he had actually left Egypt.” The next article “15 Steps of the Seder – Part 3” analyzes steps 11 – 15, namely consuming the festive meal until completion of the Seder.      

Appendix 1 – Type of Matzo

This description addresses the following points:

• Grain for matzo – wheat preferred.
• Watched matzo – preferred from time of harvesting.
• Handmade or machine – handmade preferred.
• Shape of matzo – round or square.
• Kneading liquid – water only.
• Time to knead – 18 minutes.

Matzo

Grain for Matzo

The Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 453:1), based upon the Talmud (Pesachim 35a), rules matzo may be made from wheat, barley, spelt, oats, and rye because these grains have the potential to become leavened bread. The Talmud derives this rule of leavening from the verse in Deuteronomy 16:3, “You shall not eat leavened bread with it (the paschal offering). For 7 days you shall eat matzoth, the bread of affliction.” The Talmud (ibid.) draws a comparison between leavened bread and matzoth and rules that matzoth must be made only from grains that have the potential to become leavened bread, excluding matzoth made from rice, millet, or buckwheat. Certainly the matzo must be fully baked to prevent the dough from rising as will be explained below.   

Although the Talmud permits any of the 5 grains for making matzo the Rema (ibid.) comments that the custom is use to wheat. The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 2) explains that people prefer a matzo made from wheat due its taste and texture. The Dirshu edition of the Mishna Berurah (ibid. 1) comments that in addition to the taste, wheat is the preferred grain because it takes longer to leaven than other grains minimizing the chance of the matzo to rise. The Dirshu (ibid. 4) mentions that barley is the preferred grain after wheat because the former is mentioned in the Torah (Deuteronomy 8:8) as one of the 7 species of produce which are the praise of the land of Israel. After barley, spelt is the preferred grain because the Talmud (Pesachim 35a) states that spelt is in the same botanical family as wheat. If spelt is not available one may use either oats or rye for matzo.       

Watched Matzo (Shmura שמורה)

The Torah states (Exodus 12:17), “You shall safeguard (literally watch) (ושמרתם) the matzoth.” At a literal level the verse means that the Israelites should be careful in the preparation of matzoth that it does not become leavened because consumption of leavened products on Passover is punishable by excision (ibid. 19).

However the Talmud (Pesachim 40a) interprets the verse as referring to a specific mitzvah, meaning to watch the preparation of matzoth for use in the Seder. The latter part of the above verse speaks of the exodus as follows, “For on this very day I (Hashem) have taken your legions out of the land of Egypt. (Therefore) you shall observe this day for generations, as an everlasting statute”.  The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 21) explains that matzoth used for the Seder (i.e. steps 7, 8, 10, and 12) require a special guarding for the sake of the mitzvah of consuming matzo. For the rest of Passover a guarding against leavening is sufficient (Aruch Hashulchan 453:20).        

The Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 453:4), based upon the Talmud (ibid.), cites different views about this special degree of watching, from the time of:

• Harvesting the grain (Preferable). The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 22) explains that as long as the grain is fresh and attached to the ground there is no concern that the grain will become leavened. Hence it is not necessary to guard the wheat before harvesting. The Dirshu (ibid. 27) records a dispute whether the guarding applies at the time of harvest or only when the wheat is tied into bundles.      
• Grinding the grain (Normative Halacha). The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 23) explains that this Halacha applies to a water mill where the grain may come into contact with water.
• Kneading the dough (Least preferred if using a water mill). The Shaar Hatziyun (ibid. 33) explains that if the mill is not driven by water then the guarding applies at the time of kneading (ibid.).   

For the Seder, the Yalkut Yosef (475:39) similarly recommends shmura matzo from the time of harvesting. However if not available one may use matzo which was watched from the time of kneading. Most suppliers of shmura matzo indicate on the box if the matzo was watched from the time of harvesting. 

Handmade or Machine

In addition to watching the matzo before baking, the Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 460:1) applies the verse in Exodus 12:17 to rule that matzo for the Seder must be kneaded and baked for the purpose of the Seder. Therefore both of these activities should be performed by adult Israelites. The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 2) explains that although this restriction only applies to the matzoth for the Seder some extend this requirement to all of the matzoth consumed on Passover. The Dirshu (ibid. 4) explains that kneading and baking are the primary activities for making matzo and therefore should be performed by Israelites. By contrast the activities of harvesting and grinding are only preparatory stages in the production of matzo and may be performed by gentiles under the supervision of an adult Israelite. 

Based upon the above ruling of the Shulchan Aruch the Dirshu (ibid. 9) records a dispute about the use of machine processed matzo for the Seder. On one hand the Shulchan Aruch requires an Israelite to knead and bake the matzo which would exclude a machine. On the other hand if an adult Israelite operates the machine with the intention of making matzoth for the Seder the machine could be considered as an extension of the operator. In addition some interpret the requirement to watch the matzo during the kneading or baking as scrupulous attention to prevent leavening of the matzo which may be fulfilled by an Israelite operator. The Dirshu (ibid.) concludes that one should use hand processed matzo for the Seder. However if this is not possible then one may use machine processed matzo which was supervised by an adult Israelite. The Yalkut Yosef (475:40) also rules in this manner.               

In addition the Dirshu (ibid. 7) records a dispute whether the intention for the mitzvah must be verbally expressed or it is sufficient to have the mitzvah in mind.    

The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 3) records a dispute about the eligibility of a minor or gentile for kneading or baking the matzoth when supervised by an adult Israelite. One view opines that only an adult Israelite can have the intention to process the matzo for the sake of this mitzvah. The opposing view holds that if an adult Israelite supervises the processing of the matzo and informs the gentile or minor to have the mitzvah in mind the matzo is valid for the Seder.

Shape of Matzo

The reader may ask, “Is there a preference in Halacha between round or square matzoth?” In Halacha there is no difference as both are valid for the Seder. Some find a preference for round matzoth based upon the verse in Exodus 12:39, “They (Israelites) baked the dough that they took out of Egypt as unleavened round (עגת) cakes … for they were driven out of Egypt and could not delay.” However others explain that matzoth were originally round because it is easier to manually roll dough in this shape. By contrast machine made matzoth are square because this shape is more efficient when using a conveyor system. Hence the shape depends upon the method of production.        

Kneading

Kneading Liquid

In addition to grain for the matzo, the Shulchan Aruch rules on the kneading liquid for matzo whether for the Seder or rest of Passover. Specifically the Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 462:1) states, based upon Pesachim 36a, that one may make matzo using fruit juice (e.g. wine, oil, or honey), for consumption on Pesach but not for the Seder. This matzo is invalid for the Seder because it must be a poor man’s bread, meaning just flour and water, based upon Deuteronomy 16:3. For the rest of Passover one may eat matzo kneaded with fruit juice provided that no water was added to the liquid (Mishna Berurah ibid. 2). However the Rema (ibid. 4) cites the custom of Ashkenazim who do not eat matzo kneaded with fruit juices on Passover except for the sick or elderly if required.

Time to Knead

The Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 459:2) establishes the following time limits for dough to be kneaded into for matzo:

• Idle before kneading (cool) – 18 minutes.
• Idle after kneading (warm) – 0 minutes.
• Worked on – all day.

The Shulchan Aruch (ibid.) explains that after flour comes into contact with water it may become leavened if left idle with the time limit dependent upon the scenario (i.e. before and after kneading).

Before Kneading

Before kneading, the dough is cool and the limit is defined as the time to walk 2,000 amot which is about 1 km at a regular walking pace. (The word amot is the plural of amah.) The Shulchan Aruch (ibid.) quantifies this time at 18 minutes.

Although dough with yeast will rise within about 30 minutes and certainly longer without yeast, the Shulchan sets the limit at 18 minutes to correspond to the initial leavening of a minority of the dough.

Since there is a dispute in Halacha about the length of an amah (i.e. from 48-59 cm) the implied walking pace will also vary as shown in the following table which lists the length of an amah, corresponding length in 2,000 amot, rate in km/hr, and mi/hr.

Length (cm)	2000 Amot (km)	Rate (km/hr)	Rate (mi/hr)
48	0.96	3.20	1.98
59	1.18	3.93	2.43

(The figure in km/hr is obtained by dividing the 2000 amot distance in km by 18 minutes to obtain a rate in km/minute and then multiplying by 60 for the rate in km/hr. For ease of calculation 60/18 is equivalent to 10/3. The rate in mi/hr is obtained by multiplying the rate in km/hr by 0.62 because 1 km = 0.62 mi. At present the typical pace of a walker is about 4.82 km per hour or 3 miles per hour. Hence the rate suggested by this Halacha corresponds to walking at a leisurely pace).  

During Kneading

As long as one kneads the dough it will not become leavened. In fact the Shulchan Aruch (ibid.) allows one to knead the same dough all day. However upon completion of kneading the person should immediately place the dough in the oven for baking.

After Kneading 

After kneading the dough is warmed through contact with hands and therefore the Halacha does not allow any idle time. Rather upon completion of kneading the person should immediately place the dough in the oven for baking.

18 Minute Matzo

The codifiers of Halacha debate whether or not individual pauses in the kneading process accumulate to the 18 minute limit. One view (e.g. Rema ibid.) holds that as soon as the kneading resumes the leavening process is stopped. The opposing view also quoted by the Rema opines that the 18 minute limit is cumulative. The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 16) rules according to the former view when actively working on the dough (e.g. kneading or rolling) and according to the latter view when the action is minor (e.g. making holes in the matzo to facilitate baking).

The Dirshu (ibid. 19) concludes that one should follow the latter view (i.e. cumulative) for machine matzo because the rollers may not be in contact with the matzo at the same time leaving some of the dough idle. Some producers of matzoth label their product as “18 minute matzo” meaning that every 18 minutes the machine is stopped and cleaned from any residual dough.    

Appendix 2 – Amount of Matzo

The size of matzoth required for the Seder is subject to much dispute among the decisors of Halacha. The author does not intend to resolve these differences because they are based on recognized disputes in Halacha. Rather this appendix will analyze the different assumptions underlying these opinions.  

Hence this analysis addresses the following points:

• Volume of olive.
• Volume of egg.
• Ratio of olive to egg volume.
• Measurements with respect to human body. 
• Density of matzo.
• Size of matzo.

Volume

Volume of Olive

Although the decisors of Halacha agree that one must eat an olive volume of matzo at the Seder they disagree about the size of this olive especially when the volume of olives varies greatly depending upon its type (i.e. ranging from small to colossal with a ratio of 1 to 5). It is interesting to note that at the time of the temple the volume of a reference olive was known as the Mishna (Keilim 17:8) states, “The olive of which they spoke is neither big nor small but of a moderate size.”

Rabbi Avraham Chaim Naeh of 20^th century Israel was a major authority in Halacha. In his last work, titled Shiurei Torah (Measurements of the Torah), he converted biblical measurements into contemporary measures and set the olive volume at 28.8 cc for the strict measure and 19.2 cc for the lenient measure. The Dirshu (486:6) also quotes these volumes even though they are larger than the size of a medium olive of today. 

Volume of Egg

The following table lists the different types of eggs by their name and volume in cc or ml. (Note: 1cc = 1ml).

Name	Volume (cc or ml)
Jumbo	75
Extra Large	67.5
Large	60
Medium	52.5
Small	45
Peewee	37.5

As seen from the above table, the ratio of jumbo to peewee eggs at 2 to 1 is much smaller than the ratio of 5 to 1 for olives. Hence the decisors of Halacha focus on the size of an egg to determine the volume of an olive. In addition olives were not common in northern Europe. The Mishna (Keilim 17:6) states, “The egg of which they spoke is neither big nor small but of moderate size. Rabbi Judah says: the largest and smallest eggs must be brought and put in water and the displaced water is then divided. Rabbi Yose says: but who can tell me which is the largest and which is the smallest? Rather, it all depends on the observer’s estimate.” The Halachic volume for an egg is 57.6 cc, as determined by Rabbi Naeh (Dirshu 486:6), fits between a medium and large egg.    

Ratio of Olive to Egg Volume

The Shulchan Aruch (ibid. 486:1) defines an olive volume as ½ of a medium sized chicken egg with its shell. The Mishna Berurah (ibid. 1) notes that Maimonides defines an olive volume as ⅓ of an egg. This dispute is based upon different statements in the Talmud as follows. The Talmud (Yoma 80a) states that a human throat cannot swallow more than a single egg of a hen. In addition the Talmud (Keritut) 14a states that a human throat cannot contain more than two olives. The implication is that an egg is twice the size of an olive.  

However other statements in Talmud indicate otherwise. For example the Talmud (Eruvin 82b) through a series of calculations suggests that the amount of bread for a meal is 3 egg volumes. In turn the Talmud (ibid. 80b) indicates that the volume of 3 eggs is equivalent to 9 dried figs which means that a dried fig is ⅓ the volume of an egg. The Talmud (Shabbat 91a) states that the volume of an olive is smaller than that of a dried fig. 

Hence the question arises, “Is the ratio of olive to egg volume ⅓ or ½?” The commentators on the Talmud offer the following resolutions:

• Different opinions – The Talmud records different opinions about this ratio. (These views could be reconciled to some extent by taking into account the different sizes of eggs. Specifically ½ of a small egg 22.5 cc (45 * ½) and ⅓ of a large egg is 20 cc (60 * ⅓).)     
• Similar opinions – ⅓ of eggs with shell and ½ of egg without shell.       

Using the volume of an egg as 57.6 cc, the volume of an olive in Halacha is either 28.8 (57.6 * ½) cc according to the first opinion or 19.2 cc (57.6 * ⅓) according to the second view. The Mishna Berurah (ibid.) explains that in matters of Torah law (e.g. consuming the first olive volume at the Seder) one should follow the stricter opinion of 28.8 cc. By contrast in matters of rabbinic law (e.g. second matzo of this step and matzo eaten at step 10 – Korech) one may follow the lenient opinion of 19.2cc. 

Human Body

Since both the volume of olives and eggs vary greatly the decisors of Halacha use examples from the human body as cited in the Talmud as follows:

• Width of thumbs.
• Volume of cheekful.

Width of Thumbs

The Talmud Pesachim 109a-b cites a measurement of volume for the biblical log (equal to 6 eggs) based upon the height of a man and the volume of a mikvah and comes to a formula that equates the volume of 1.5 eggs to the product of 2*2*2.7 or 10.8 cubic thumb breadths. On the surface this measurement should reduce the variation between different volumes listed above. Although one could directly measure a thumb width with a ruler, without calipers this measurement would be imprecise. In addition since this measurement is small (i.e. less than 2 cm or 0.8 in) it is prone to error. Rather one may measure an amah (i.e. from the elbow to tip of the middle finger, based upon Ketubot 5b and Radak on Ezekiel 41:8) and divide by 24 because one thumb width equals 1/24 of a biblical amah (ibid.).

Although the variation in views among the decisors of Halacha for an amah (i.e. 48-59 cm) is much smaller than the range of volumes for olives or eggs, the amah measurement when applied to volume leads to a much large range because linear measurement (i.e. amah) is multiplied by itself 3 times to obtain volume. (In the engineering world this domain is called dimensional analysis.)

Dimensional Analysis

The following link provides different opinions of contemporary decisors of Halacha for a thumb width based upon an amah:

https://www.torahcalc.com/info/biblical-units

The table below shows resultant volumes for an egg depending upon the width of a thumb, based upon 1/24 of an amah (i.e. 48, 54, and 59 cm). The calculation is shown in stages (viz. thumb width cubed to convert a linear measurement to volume, them multiplied by 10.8 according to the formula of the Talmud, and then multiplied by 2/3 to convert from 1.5 egg volumes to 1 egg volume.    

Thumb Width (cm)	Width (cubed) cc	Multiplied by 10.8  (cc)	Multiplied by 2/3 (cc)
2.0	8.0	86.4	57.6
2.25	11.39	123.1	82.0
2.455	14.62	157.9	105.2

From this table the author makes the following points:

• The variation in linear measurement of 23% (i.e. 2.455/2.00) increases to 83% in cubic measurement (i.e. 14.62/8.0) showing the effect of cubing the numbers.
• The smaller figure of 2.0 cm for a thumb width leads to the value of 57.6 cc for an egg volume as discussed above.
• The volume of an egg in Halacha ranges from 57.6 to 105.2 cc. The following table shows the different volumes of an olive in cc for the strict (i.e. ½ of an egg) and lenient views (i.e. ⅓ of an egg).    

Egg Volume cc	Olive Volume cc (Strict)	Olive Volume cc (Lenient)
57.6	27.8	19.2
82.0	41.0	27.3
105.2	52.6	35.1

Volume of Cheekful

The author would like to point out another method of measurement (i.e. a cheekful) which would result in a much narrower range of volumes for an egg because:

• It is a volume measurement and therefore not as sensitive to variation as in the thumb measurement.
• Variation of cheekful between people is small.  

In particular the Shulchan Aruch (Orach Chaim 271:13), based upon the Talmud Pesachim 107a, rules that one making Kiddush, the sanctification ceremony, (e.g. at the night meal on the Sabbath) should consume a cheekful of wine. The same volume applies to the sanctification ceremony at the Seder (i.e. Step 1). The Shulchan Aruch (ibid.) further clarifies that this cheekful means that wine is drawn to only one side of the mouth and appears to be full. The Shulchan Aruch (ibid.) then explains that the size of a cheekful is equivalent to the majority of ¼ of a log (biblical measure). Since a log is equivalent to 6 eggs (Rashi on Exodus 16:36 based upon the Talmud Eruvin 83a-b), ¼ of a log is 1.5 eggs volumes (i.e. ¼ * 6 = 1.5).

With a cheekful at least ¾ of the volume of an egg (i.e. ½ * ¼ * 6), we can now determine the volume of an egg in Halacha. A cheekful is about 45cc, as measured by the author of regular build. Hence the volume of an egg is less than 60cc (45 * 4/3) because a cheekful is a majority (i.e. greater than or equal to) ¼ of a log. However if the volume of an egg is assumed to be 100cc then a cheekful would be 75cc (100 * ¾) which would imply that a person could place a jumbo sized egg one side of a cheek which is unlikely. Hence the volume of an egg at 57.6cc satisfies the cheekful measurement.  

Density

The Yalkut Yosef (475:9) explains that although an olive size is defined in volume the common practice is to use weight for ease of measurement. One can determine the amount of matzo to be eaten by crumbling a piece of matzo into meal and measuring the resulting volume since Halacha does not consider air spaces in the matzo as part of the olive volume.

However a simpler method is to measure the weight of a piece of matzo and obtain its volume using the following formula from physics, volume * density = weight, where density is measured in terms of weight per volume. For example water is the standard for density in the metric system at 1 gram per cc. The density of matzo depends upon its thickness compared to the air spaces resulting in a range of 0.5 – 0.7 g/cc (i.e. matzo is lighter than water).

Matzo meal has a density of about 0.5g/cc (e.g. Matzo meal UPC070227500072 at 127g per 250 cc = 0.51g/cc). By contrast Rabbi Dovid Feinstein (Haggadah Kol Dodi, 5745 p. 1) sets the density of matzo at 0.71 g/cc because matzo is thicker than matzo meal. The Yalkut Yosef (475:9) sets the weight of matzo at 27g for the strict measure and 18 g for the lenient measure which corresponds to a density of about 1g/cc (or 27/27.8 = 0.97 g/cc). Rav Ben Tzion Abba Shaul (Or Letzion vol 3, p 30) writes that the density figure of 1g/cc applies to very thick matzo. Since our matzo is thin and dry, one may use the figure of 0.7 g/cc.  In any event to take into account these different opinions the author has provided tables for the amount of matzo in grams for an olive volume based upon the range of densities.  

Size

Using the approximate volume of an olive (i.e. 20, 30, or 50cc) and the range of densities (i.e. 0.5 – 1.0 g/cc) the following table provides different weights of matzo in grams and ounces using the above formula volume * density = weight (e.g. 20 * 0.5 =10).

Volume (cc)	Density (0.5g/cc)	Density (0.7g/cc)	Density (1g/cc)
20	10g (0.35 oz)	14g (0.49 oz)	20g (0.71 oz)
30	15g (0.53 oz)	21g (0.74 oz)	30g (1.06 oz)
50	25g (0.88 oz)	35g (1.23 oz)	50g (1.76 oz)

To convert the above figures of weight to the size of an individual matzo one divides these numbers by the weight of an individual piece of matzo. One can weigh an individual matzo or use the net weight of a box of matzoth and divide by the number of matzoth in the box. Typically the weight of an individual matzo is about 30g for the machine type and 60g for the round hand baked version. In actuality the weight of an individual handmade matzo depends on its thickness and varies from 6 (thick) to 9 (thin) matzoth per pound. For medium handmade matzo, the figure is 7.5 per pound which results in a weight of approximately 60g per matzo (453.6/7.5 = 60.5g). (One pound equals 453.6 grams).   

Although the accepted volume for an egg is 57.6 cc the author has rounded the number to 60 cc for ease of calculation. In addition since the difference is less than 5% the approximate figure in fractions is not affected.  

Summary

Using the figures of 30 and 60 g for different types of matzo the following table may be written in terms of a fraction of a whole matzo whether machine or handmade for the range of densities.

Machine Matzo – 30g

Volume (cc)	Density (0.5g/cc)	Density (0.7g/cc)	Density (1g/cc)
20 – Lenient	1/3	About 1/2	2/3
30 -Strict	1/2	7/10	1

Handmade Matzo – 60g

Volume (cc)	Density (0.5g/cc)	Density (0.7g/cc)	Density (1g/cc)
20 – Lenient	1/6	About 1/4	1/3
30 – Strict	1/4	About 1/3	1/2